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Invega (Paliperidone) - Description and Clinical Pharmacology

 
 



DESCRIPTION

Paliperidone, the active ingredient in INVEGA® Extended-Release Tablets, is a psychotropic agent belonging to the chemical class of benzisoxazole derivatives. INVEGA® contains a racemic mixture of (+)- and (-)- paliperidone. The chemical name is (±)-3-[2-[4-(6-fluoro-1,2-benzisoxazol-3-yl)-1-piperidinyl]ethyl]-6,7,8,9-tetrahydro-9-hydroxy-2-methyl-4H-pyrido[1,2-a]pyrimidin-4-one. Its molecular formula is C23H27FN4O3 and its molecular weight is 426.49. The structural formula is:

Paliperidone is sparingly soluble in 0.1N HCl and methylene chloride; practically insoluble in water, 0.1N NaOH, and hexane; and slightly soluble in N,N-dimethylformamide.

INVEGA® (paliperidone) Extended-Release Tablets are available in 1.5 mg (orange-brown), 3 mg (white), 6 mg (beige), and 9 mg (pink) strengths. INVEGA® utilizes OROS® osmotic drug-release technology [see Description].

Inactive ingredients are carnauba wax, cellulose acetate, hydroxyethyl cellulose, propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, polyethylene oxides, povidone, sodium chloride, stearic acid, butylated hydroxytoluene, hypromellose, titanium dioxide, and iron oxides. The 3 mg tablets also contain lactose monohydrate and triacetin.

Delivery System Components and Performance

INVEGA® uses osmotic pressure to deliver paliperidone at a controlled rate. The delivery system, which resembles a capsule-shaped tablet in appearance, consists of an osmotically active trilayer core surrounded by a subcoat and semipermeable membrane. The trilayer core is composed of two drug layers containing the drug and excipients, and a push layer containing osmotically active components. There are two precision laser-drilled orifices on the drug-layer dome of the tablet. Each tablet strength has a different colored water-dispersible overcoat and print markings. In an aqueous environment, such as the gastrointestinal tract, the water-dispersible color overcoat erodes quickly. Water then enters the tablet through the semipermeable membrane that controls the rate at which water enters the tablet core, which, in turn, determines the rate of drug delivery. The hydrophilic polymers of the core hydrate and swell, creating a gel containing paliperidone that is then pushed out through the tablet orifices. The biologically inert components of the tablet remain intact during gastrointestinal transit and are eliminated in the stool as a tablet shell, along with insoluble core components.

CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY

Mechanism of Action

Paliperidone is the major active metabolite of risperidone. The mechanism of action of paliperidone, as with other drugs having efficacy in schizophrenia, is unknown, but it has been proposed that the drug's therapeutic activity in schizophrenia is mediated through a combination of central dopamine Type 2 (D2) and serotonin Type 2 (5HT2A) receptor antagonism.

Pharmacodynamics

Paliperidone is a centrally active dopamine Type 2 (D2) antagonist and with predominant serotonin Type 2 (5HT2A) activity. Paliperidone is also active as an antagonist at α1 and α2 adrenergic receptors and H1 histaminergic receptors, which may explain some of the other effects of the drug. Paliperidone has no affinity for cholinergic muscarinic or β1- and β2-adrenergic receptors. The pharmacological activity of the (+)- and (-)- paliperidone enantiomers is qualitatively and quantitatively similar in vitro.

Pharmacokinetics

Following a single dose, the plasma concentrations of paliperidone gradually rise to reach peak plasma concentration (Cmax) approximately 24 hours after dosing. The pharmacokinetics of paliperidone following INVEGA® administration are dose-proportional within the available dose range. The terminal elimination half-life of paliperidone is approximately 23 hours.

Steady-state concentrations of paliperidone are attained within 4–5 days of dosing with INVEGA® in most subjects. The mean steady-state peak:trough ratio for an INVEGA® dose of 9 mg was 1.7 with a range of 1.2–3.1.

Following administration of INVEGA®, the (+) and (-) enantiomers of paliperidone interconvert, reaching an AUC (+) to (-) ratio of approximately 1.6 at steady state.

Absorption and Distribution

The absolute oral bioavailability of paliperidone following INVEGA® administration is 28%.

Administration of a 12 mg paliperidone extended-release tablet to healthy ambulatory subjects with a standard high-fat/high-caloric meal gave mean Cmax and AUC values of paliperidone that were increased by 60% and 54%, respectively, compared with administration under fasting conditions. Clinical trials establishing the safety and efficacy of INVEGA® were carried out in subjects without regard to the timing of meals. While INVEGA® can be taken without regard to food, the presence of food at the time of INVEGA® administration may increase exposure to paliperidone [see Dosage and Administration].

Based on a population analysis, the apparent volume of distribution of paliperidone is 487 L. The plasma protein binding of racemic paliperidone is 74%.

Metabolism and Elimination

Although in vitro studies suggested a role for CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 in the metabolism of paliperidone, in vivo results indicate that these isozymes play a limited role in the overall elimination of paliperidone [see Drug Interactions (7) ].

One week following administration of a single oral dose of 1 mg immediate-release 14C-paliperidone to 5 healthy volunteers, 59% (range 51% – 67%) of the dose was excreted unchanged into urine, 32% (26% – 41%) of the dose was recovered as metabolites, and 6% – 12% of the dose was not recovered. Approximately 80% of the administered radioactivity was recovered in urine and 11% in the feces. Four primary metabolic pathways have been identified in vivo, none of which could be shown to account for more than 10% of the dose: dealkylation, hydroxylation, dehydrogenation, and benzisoxazole scission.

Population pharmacokinetic analyses found no difference in exposure or clearance of paliperidone between extensive metabolizers and poor metabolizers of CYP2D6 substrates.

Special Populations

Renal Impairment

The dose of INVEGA® should be reduced in patients with moderate or severe renal impairment [see Dosage and Administration]. The disposition of a single dose paliperidone 3 mg extended-release tablet was studied in adult subjects with varying degrees of renal function. Elimination of paliperidone decreased with decreasing estimated creatinine clearance. Total clearance of paliperidone was reduced in subjects with impaired renal function by 32% on average in mild (CrCl = 50 mL/min to < 80 mL/min), 64% in moderate (CrCl = 30 mL/min to < 50 mL/min), and 71% in severe (CrCl = 10 mL/min to < 30 mL/min) renal impairment, corresponding to an average increase in exposure (AUCinf) of 1.5 fold, 2.6 fold, and 4.8 fold, respectively, compared to healthy subjects. The mean terminal elimination half-life of paliperidone was 24 hours, 40 hours, and 51 hours in subjects with mild, moderate, and severe renal impairment, respectively, compared with 23 hours in subjects with normal renal function (CrCl ≥ 80 mL/min).

Hepatic Impairment

In a study in adult subjects with moderate hepatic impairment (Child-Pugh class B), the plasma concentrations of free paliperidone were similar to those of healthy subjects, although total paliperidone exposure decreased because of a decrease in protein binding. Consequently, no dose adjustment is required in patients with mild or moderate hepatic impairment. INVEGA® has not been studied in patients with severe hepatic impairment.

Adolescents (12–17 years of age)

Paliperidone systemic exposure in adolescents weighing ≥ 51 kg (≥ 112 lbs) was similar to that in adults. In adolescents weighing < 51 kg (< 112 lbs), a 23% higher exposure was observed; this is considered not to be clinically significant. Age did not influence the paliperidone exposure.

Elderly

No dosage adjustment is recommended based on age alone. However, dose adjustment may be required because of age-related decreases in creatinine clearance [see Renal Impairment above and Dosage and Administration (2.1, 2.5)].

Race

No dosage adjustment is recommended based on race. No differences in pharmacokinetics were observed in a pharmacokinetic study conducted in Japanese and Caucasians.

Gender

No dosage adjustment is recommended based on gender. No differences in pharmacokinetics were observed in a pharmacokinetic study conducted in men and women.

Smoking

No dosage adjustment is recommended based on smoking status. Based on in vitro studies utilizing human liver enzymes, paliperidone is not a substrate for CYP1A2; smoking should, therefore, not have an effect on the pharmacokinetics of paliperidone.

NONCLINICAL TOXICOLOGY

Carcinogenesis, Mutagenesis, Impairment of Fertility

Carcinogenesis

Carcinogenicity studies of paliperidone have not been performed.

Carcinogenicity studies of risperidone, which is extensively converted to paliperidone in rats, mice, and humans, were conducted in Swiss albino mice and Wistar rats. Risperidone was administered in the diet at daily doses of 0.63 mg/kg, 2.5 mg/kg, and 10 mg/kg for 18 months to mice and for 25 months to rats. A maximum tolerated dose was not achieved in male mice. There were statistically significant increases in pituitary gland adenomas, endocrine pancreas adenomas, and mammary gland adenocarcinomas. The no-effect dose for these tumors was less than or equal to the maximum recommended human dose of risperidone on a mg/m2 basis (see risperidone package insert). An increase in mammary, pituitary, and endocrine pancreas neoplasms has been found in rodents after chronic administration of other antipsychotic drugs and is considered to be mediated by prolonged dopamine D2 antagonism and hyperprolactinemia. The relevance of these tumor findings in rodents in terms of human risk is unknown [see Warnings and Precautions].

Mutagenesis

No evidence of genotoxic potential for paliperidone was found in the Ames reverse mutation test, the mouse lymphoma assay, or the in vivo rat micronucleus test.

Impairment of Fertility

In a study of fertility, the percentage of treated female rats that became pregnant was not affected at oral doses of paliperidone of up to 2.5 mg/kg/day. However, pre- and post-implantation loss was increased, and the number of live embryos was slightly decreased, at 2.5 mg/kg, a dose that also caused slight maternal toxicity. These parameters were not affected at a dose of 0.63 mg/kg, which is half of the maximum recommended human dose on a mg/m2 basis.

The fertility of male rats was not affected at oral doses of paliperidone of up to 2.5 mg/kg/day, although sperm count and sperm viability studies were not conducted with paliperidone. In a subchronic study in Beagle dogs with risperidone, which is extensively converted to paliperidone in dogs and humans, all doses tested (0.31 mg/kg – 5.0 mg/kg) resulted in decreases in serum testosterone and in sperm motility and concentration. Serum testosterone and sperm parameters partially recovered, but remained decreased after the last observation (two months after treatment was discontinued).

CLINICAL STUDIES

Schizophrenia

Adults

The acute efficacy of INVEGA® (3 mg to 15 mg once daily) was established in three placebo-controlled and active-controlled (olanzapine), 6-week, fixed-dose trials in non-elderly adult subjects (mean age of 37) who met DSM-IV criteria for schizophrenia. Studies were carried out in North America, Eastern Europe, Western Europe, and Asia. The doses studied among these three trials included 3 mg/day, 6 mg/day, 9 mg/day, 12 mg/day, and 15 mg/day. Dosing was in the morning without regard to meals.

Efficacy was evaluated using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), a validated multi-item inventory composed of five factors to evaluate positive symptoms, negative symptoms, disorganized thoughts, uncontrolled hostility/excitement, and anxiety/depression. Efficacy was also evaluated using the Personal and Social Performance (PSP) scale. The PSP is a validated clinician-rated scale that measures personal and social functioning in the domains of socially useful activities (e.g., work and study), personal and social relationships, self-care, and disturbing and aggressive behaviors.

In all 3 studies (n = 1665), INVEGA® was superior to placebo on the PANSS at all doses. Mean effects at all doses were fairly similar, although the higher doses in all studies were numerically superior. INVEGA® was also superior to placebo on the PSP in these trials.

An examination of population subgroups did not reveal any evidence of differential responsiveness on the basis of gender, age (there were few patients over 65), or geographic region. There were insufficient data to explore differential effects based on race.

In a longer-term trial, adult outpatients meeting DSM-IV criteria for schizophrenia who had clinically responded (defined as PANSS score ≤ 70 or ≤ 4 on pre-defined PANSS subscales, as well as having been on a stable fixed dose of INVEGA® for the last two weeks of an 8-week run-in phase) were entered into a 6-week open-label stabilization phase where they received INVEGA® (doses ranging from 3 mg to 15 mg once daily). After the stabilization phase, patients were randomized in a double-blind manner to either continue on INVEGA® at their achieved stable dose, or to placebo, until they experienced a relapse of schizophrenia symptoms. Relapse was pre-defined as significant increase in PANSS (or pre-defined PANSS subscales), hospitalization, clinically significant suicidal or homicidal ideation, or deliberate injury to self or others. An interim analysis of the data showed a significantly longer time to relapse in patients treated with INVEGA® compared to placebo, and the trial was stopped early because maintenance of efficacy was demonstrated.

Adolescents

The efficacy of INVEGA® in adolescent subjects with schizophrenia was established in a randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, placebo-controlled, 6-week study using a fixed-dose weight-based treatment group design over the dose range of 1.5 to 12 mg/day. The study was carried out in the US, India, Romania, Russia, and Ukraine, and involved subjects 12–17 years of age meeting DSM-IV criteria for schizophrenia, with diagnosis confirmation using the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia-Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL).

Eligible subjects were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 treatment groups: a placebo group or INVEGA® Low, Medium, or High dose groups. Doses were administered based on body weight to minimize the risk of exposing lower-weight adolescents to high doses of INVEGA®. Subjects weighing between 29 kg and less than 51 kg at the baseline visit were randomly assigned to receive placebo or 1.5 mg (Low dose), 3 mg (Medium dose), or 6 mg (High dose) of INVEGA® daily, and subjects weighing at least 51 kg at the baseline visit were randomly assigned to receive placebo or 1.5 mg (Low dose), 6 mg (Medium dose), or 12 mg (High dose) of INVEGA® daily. Dosing was in the morning without regard to meals.

Efficacy was evaluated using PANSS. Overall, this study demonstrated the efficacy of INVEGA® in adolescents with schizophrenia in the dose range of 3 to 12 mg/day. Doses within this broad range were shown to be effective, however, there was no clear enhancement to efficacy at the higher doses, i.e., 6 mg for subjects weighing less than 51 kg and 12 mg for subjects weighing 51 kg or greater. Although paliperidone was adequately tolerated within the dose range of 3 to 12 mg/day, adverse events were dose related.

Schizoaffective Disorder

Adults

The acute efficacy of INVEGA® (3 mg to 12 mg once daily) in the treatment of schizoaffective disorder was established in two placebo-controlled, 6-week trials in non-elderly adult subjects. Enrolled subjects 1) met DSM-IV criteria for schizoaffective disorder, as confirmed by the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Disorders, 2) had a Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) total score of at least 60, and 3) had prominent mood symptoms as confirmed by a score of at least 16 on the Young Mania Rating Scale and/or Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression. The population included subjects with schizoaffective bipolar and depressive types. In one of these trials, efficacy was assessed in 211 subjects who received flexible doses of INVEGA® (3–12 mg once daily). In the other study, efficacy was assessed in 203 subjects who were assigned to one of two dose levels of INVEGA®: 6 mg with the option to reduce to 3 mg (n = 105) or 12 mg with the option to reduce to 9 mg (n = 98) once daily. Both studies included subjects who received INVEGA® either as monotherapy [no mood stabilizers and/or antidepressants (55%)] or as an adjunct to mood stabilizers and/or antidepressants (45%). The most commonly used mood stabilizers were valproate and lithium. The most commonly used antidepressants were SSRIs and SNRIs. INVEGA® was dosed in the morning without regard to meals. Studies were carried out in the United States, Eastern Europe, Russia, and Asia.

Efficacy was evaluated using the PANSS, a validated multi-item inventory composed of five factors to evaluate positive symptoms, negative symptoms, disorganized thoughts, uncontrolled hostility/excitement, and anxiety/depression. As secondary outcomes, mood symptoms were evaluated using the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D-21) and the Young Mania Rating Scale (YMRS).

The INVEGA® group in the flexible-dose study (dosed between 3 and 12 mg/day, mean modal dose of 8.6 mg/day) and the higher dose group of INVEGA® in the 2 dose-level study (12 mg/day with option to reduce to 9 mg/day) were each superior to placebo in the PANSS. Numerical improvements in mood symptoms were also observed, as measured by the HAM-D-21 and YMRS. In the lower dose group of the 2 dose-level study (6 mg/day with option to reduce to 3 mg/day), INVEGA® was not significantly different from placebo as measured by the PANSS.

Taking the results of both studies together, INVEGA® improved the symptoms of schizoaffective disorder at endpoint relative to placebo when administered either as monotherapy or as an adjunct to mood stabilizers and/or antidepressants. An examination of population subgroups did not reveal any evidence of differential responsiveness on the basis of gender, age, or geographic region. There were insufficient data to explore differential effects based on race.

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